Meta-cognitive and interpersonal difficulties in overt and covert narcissism

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.014Get rights and content

Abstract

This paper profiles meta-cognitive (affect-dysregulation, empathy and identity-concerns) and interpersonal difficulties in both overt (ON) and covert (CN) narcissism. It explores mediation effects of meta-cognition in interpersonal difficulties. Participants (n = 177) completed self-report measures of ON and CN, affect-dysregulation, empathy, identity-concerns, and interpersonal difficulties. Analysis confirmed that ON and CN are independent constructs. Both are associated with identity-impairment, however each reflect different internal and interpersonal difficulties. ON was associated with a lack of vicarious personal distress and interpersonal difficulties characterized by dominance/control, neediness/intrusiveness and lack of assertion. CN was associated with affect-dysregulation and fantasy (index of empathy) and reported interpersonal problems characterized by vindictiveness/self-centeredness and social inhibition. CN was negatively associated with coldness/distance. Meta-cognition mediated some interpersonal problems in both ON and CN. A lack of personal distress mediated the negative relationship between ON and non-assertiveness and suppressed intrusiveness, suggesting a lack of vicarious distress may contribute to interpersonal difficulties due to an intrusive social style. In CN, all interpersonal difficulties were mediated by affect-dysregulation and identity-impairment. Results reinforce the importance of differentiating between ON and CN in future research.

Introduction

The conflict between meta-cognitive processes1 and interpersonal relationships are considered central to the maintenance of narcissism (Dimaggio et al., 2002, Morf and Rhodewalt, 2001a), whereby inner experience of affect, perception of self (identity-impairment), perception of others (empathy) negatively impact interpersonal functioning (APA, 2000).

Two explanatory models of narcissism link meta-cognitive processes and interpersonal difficulties. Morf and Rhodewalt’s (2001a) ‘Dynamic Self-Regulatory Processing Model of Narcissism’ (DSRM-N) proposes that the interaction of intrapersonal processes, interpersonal strategies and social feedback influence narcissistic behavioral patterns. Vulnerability, due to limited self-knowledge and inability to self-regulate, is juxtaposed by a sense of grandiosity and entitlement, resulting in internal conflict. Meta-cognitive deficits prevent this conflict being recognized or resolved. Consequently those with narcissistic traits seek social approval to bolster self-esteem. Similarly interpersonal difficulties mean attempts to engineer positive feedback fail, which increases aversive affect-states and further oscillations between grandiosity and vulnerability. Dimaggio et al.’s (2002) Integrated Narcissism Model (INM) also suggests that a non-integrated mind state and inability to self-reflect leave narcissistic individuals excessively dependent on others to confirm a sense of identity and regulate their negative affective states. However, an inability to express their inner states or decentrate2 results in problematic interpersonal relations. This interpersonal cycle maintains narcissistic dysfunction.

However, Wink (1991) distinguished between two statistically independent forms of narcissism, Overt (ON) characterized by grandiosity, entitlement and self-absorption and Covert (CN) characterized by hypersensitivity, vulnerability and dependence on others. Both forms are thought to share common meta-cognitive deficits which result in conflicting feelings of grandiosity and vulnerability, however they cope by suppressing one and projecting the other, resulting in different presentations (McWilliams, 1994).

This suggests that beneath the grandiose exterior of ON, a vulnerable depleted inner-self exists, while CN project emotional vulnerability and suppress entitlement (Akhtar and Thomson, 1982, Broucek, 1991, Kohut, 1971).

Hence, although both models outline the interplay between meta-cognitive and interpersonal difficulties, neither distinguishes between ON and CN. Similarly, understanding of the relationship between meta-cognitive and interpersonal presentation in ON and CN is limited to fairly descriptive accounts. This paper aims to investigate whether presentational differences between ON and CN lead to different meta-cognitive processes (affect-dysregulation, empathy and identity cohesion) and interpersonal difficulties. It also explores whether meta-cognition mediates interpersonal presentation.

Section snippets

Meta-cognitive factors

Affect Regulation is defined as conscious or unconscious procedures which maximize pleasant and minimize unpleasant emotions (Westen, 1995). Poor affect regulation leads to increased affective intensity, lability and distress (Mendoza-Denton, Ayduk, Mischel, Shoda, & Testa, 2001). Difficulty regulating affect is considered a central feature of narcissism, although empirical findings remain inconclusive (Krystal, 1998). Some studies suggest emotional lability is associated with ON (Emmons, 1987,

Method

Participants (n = 177) were recruited from two samples; 68 undergraduates and 109 from local communities incentivized with a draw-prize.

Mean age was 27.56 years (SD = 11.94, range 18–76). 72% of participants were Australian, were proficient in English, and had completed secondary-school education.

Measures

ON was measured using the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI; Raskin & Terry, 1988) a 40-item inventory. Items are based on DSM-III criteria for NPD, however are sensitive to differences in non-clinical populations. Reliability (α = .83 to .85) and construct validity are established (Emmons, 1987). Test–retest reliability was established (r = .72) (Emmons, 1987).

CN was measured with the Hypersensitivity Narcissism Scale (HSNS; Hendin & Cheek, 1997), a 10-item measure of narcissistic

Results

The two measures of narcissism were normally distributed; the mean for the NPI was 17.5 (SD = 6.97, range 3–36), and 4.1 (SD = 2.18, range 0–9) for the HSNS.

Construct Independence: Zero-order correlations confirmed the presence of linear composite variables, representing ON (NPI) and CN (HSNS) that could be treated as independent. A significant but weak relationship was detected between ON and CN (r = .267, p < 0.0005), however the 7.1% overlap (R2 = .071 × 100) was considered to result from high power,

Discussion

This study supported assertions that there are two independent forms of narcissism characterized by stable, but different, meta-cognitive styles. Both share identity difficulties but differ in patterns of association with affect-dysregulation, empathy and interpersonal problems. Meta-cognitive factors do appear to influence interpersonal style differently in ON and CN. These findings have implications for future theory and understanding of narcissism.

Most striking is that ON and CN were both

Conclusion

This research has contributed empirically to understanding of narcissism and further delineates between ON and CN. Findings demonstrate that meta-cognitive factors do indeed appear to impact interpersonal difficulties, however shows an important distinction between the different presentations of ON and CN. While both ON and CN appear to experience impaired identity, their meta-cognitive processes and interpersonal interactions are markedly different. By considering ON and CN independently, it

References (34)

  • H. Hendin et al.

    Assessing hypersensitive narcissism: A reexamination of Murray’s narcism scale

    Journal of Research in Personality

    (1997)
  • A. Agresti et al.

    Statistical methods for the social sciences

    (1997)
  • S. Akhtar et al.

    Overview: Narcissistic personality disorder

    American Journal of Psychiatry

    (1982)
  • APA (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington,...
  • A. Baumgardner et al.

    Regulating affect interpersonally: When low self-esteem leads to greater enhancement

    Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

    (1989)
  • J. Briere

    IASC. Inventory of altered self-capacities: Professional manual

    (2000)
  • F. Broucek

    Shame and the self

    (1991)
  • M. Davis

    Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach

    Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

    (1983)
  • Davis, M., & Kraus, L. (1991). Dispositional empathy and social relationships. In W. H. Jones, & Perlman, D. (Eds.),...
  • G. Dimaggio et al.

    Metacognition, states of mind, cognitive biases, and interpersonal cycles: Proposal for an integrated narcissism model

    Journal of Psychotherapy Integration

    (2002)
  • R. Emmons

    Narcissism: Theory and measurement

    Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

    (1987)
  • R. Emmons

    Personality and forgiveness

  • R. Emmons et al.

    Emotional conflict and well-being: Relation to perceived availability, daily utilization, and observer reports of social support

    Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

    (1995)
  • L. Horowitz et al.

    Inventory of interpersonal problems manual. The Psychological Corporation

    (2000)
  • O. Kernberg

    A contemporary reading of “On narcissism”

  • H. Kohut

    The analysis of the self

    (1971)
  • H. Krystal

    Affect regulation and narcissism: Trauma, alexithymia and psychosomatic illness in narcissistic patients

  • Cited by (51)

    • Narcissism and academic performance: A case of suppression

      2022, Personality and Individual Differences
    • The interplay between vulnerable and grandiose narcissism, emotion dysregulation, and distress tolerance in adolescents

      2021, Personality and Individual Differences
      Citation Excerpt :

      Poor emotion regulation specifically may hinder these social goals. Prior research with adults has found a positive relation between vulnerable narcissism and dysregulation, but results pertaining to grandiose narcissism are mixed (Cheshure, Zeigler-Hill, Sauls, Vrabel, & Lehtman, 2020; Given-Wilson, McIlwain, & Warburton, 2011; Jonason & Krause, 2013; H. Zhang, Luo, Zhao, Zhang, & Wang, 2017; H. Zhang, Wang, You, Lü, & Luo, 2015). Emotion regulation is important for adolescent social functioning (e.g., peer relationships, prosocial behaviors, social competence), and dysregulation is implicated in the development and maintenance of psychopathology (i.e., anxiety, depression, aggression; Mclaughlin, Hatzenbuehler, Mennin, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2011).

    • Automatic imitation is reduced in narcissists but only in egocentric perspective-takers

      2021, Acta Psychologica
      Citation Excerpt :

      Reduced empathy and reduced perspective taking have both been proposed to lie at the heart of the interpersonal difficulties associated with narcissism (Hepper et al., 2014; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001; P.J. Watson, Grisham, Trotter, & Biderman, 1984; P.J. Watson & Morris, 1991). This view is strongly supported by the consistent finding of a negative association between narcissism and self-reported measures of empathy and perspective taking (Delič, Novak, Kovačič, & Avsec, 2011; Given-Wilson, McIlwain, & Warburton, 2011; Hepper et al., 2014; P.K. Jonason & Krause, 2013; Munro, Bore, & Powis, 2005; Ritter et al., 2011; Vonk, Zeigler-hill, Mayhew, & Mercer, 2013; P.J. Watson et al., 1984; P.J. Watson & Biderman, 1994; P.J. Watson, Biderman, & Sawrie, 1994; P.J. Watson, Little, Sawrie, & Biderman, 1992; P.J. Watson & Morris, 1991) and performance-based measures of empathy (Mota et al., 2019; Vonk et al., 2013; M. Zajenkowski, Maciantowicz, Szymaniak, & Urban, 2018). Yet, empathy and perspective taking are complex multifaceted constructs encompassing distinct mechanisms ranging from basic sensory-motor coupling to high-level social reasoning (e.g., Bukowski, 2014; Decety, 2004; Lamm, Bukowski, & Silani, 2016; Preston & de Waal, 2002) and therefore the question of which specific social-cognitive mechanism are altered in narcissists remains open.

    • Justifications of entitlement in grandiose and vulnerable narcissism: The roles of injustice and superiority

      2021, Personality and Individual Differences
      Citation Excerpt :

      Thus, individuals high in vulnerable narcissism may sometimes report superiority, or feeling inherently deserving, but what distinguishes them from grandiose narcissism is their relatively stronger tendency to focus on ways they feel subjectively worse off. This focus may be fostered by the discrepancy that individuals high in vulnerable narcissism are so sensitive to where their grandiose fantasies of importance are met with a lack of validation or recognition (Dickinson & Pincus, 2003; Given-Wilson et al., 2011). Their high uncertainty, insecurity, and prevention focus (Freis, 2018) likely further this rumination making concerns of subjective injustice a more feasible way to consistently defend their feelings of entitlement.

    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text